Metal Foam and Nanoparticle-Enhanced Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage: A Review of Hybrid Enhancement

Ali Raed  Jassim; Ibrahim Thamer Nazzal

doi:10.71229/z57x0y52

Authors

Ali Raed Jassim Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Tikrit University, 34001, Tikrit, Iraq https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7048-0833
Ibrahim Thamer Nazzal Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Tikrit University, 34001, Tikrit, Iraq https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8745-275X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.71229/z57x0y52

Keywords:

Phase change materials, , Nanoparticles,, Metal foam, , Latent heat thermal energy storage,, Hybrid composites

Abstract

Latent heat thermal energy storage offers high energy density, but low thermal conductivity limits charging and discharging rates. This narrative review examines open-cell metal foams, dispersed nanoparticles and their hybrid combination through ten purposively selected core studies. Experimental measurements, numerical predictions and analytical estimates are evaluated separately. Foam provides a continuous conductive pathway while displacing PCM and resisting liquid flow; nanoparticles modify pore-fluid conductivity and viscosity and may exhibit dispersion instability. For representative paraffin and oxide densities, 5 wt% corresponds to approximately 0.64–1.37 vol%, with smaller ideal viscosity and latent-inventory penalties than at 5 vol%. The principal duration comparison draws on one experimental source with two melting conditions and a separate numerical collector study. Experimental point estimates lie 3.26 and 5.09 percentage points below the multiplicative duration reference. Missing endpoint-specific uncertainty prevents determining whether these departures exceed measurement error. The numerical case is excluded from the matched-mass index because equal PCM inventory is not established. A solidification index is also excluded because the source uses different phase-change temperature intervals across configurations. The transport framework explains the mechanisms but provides no new simulation results. The remaining gap is an experimentally validated companion model coupled to systematic extended cycling. A four-configuration programme is proposed with separate matched-mass and matched-volume comparisons, uncertainty propagation and variance-based repeat counts.

References

[1] K. Tofani and S. Tiari, “Nano-enhanced phase change materials in latent heat thermal energy storage systems: A review,” Energies, vol. 14, no. 13, art. 3821, 2021. doi: 10.3390/en14133821. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133821.

[2] B. Buonomo, M. R. Golia, O. Manca and S. Nardini, “A review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials enhanced by metal foams,” Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 53, art. 102732, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.tsep.2024.102732. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2024.102732.

[3] J. M. Khodadadi and S. F. Hosseinizadeh, “Nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials (NEPCM) with great potential for improved thermal energy storage,” International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 534-543, 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2007.02.005. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2007.02.005.

[4] K. Pielichowska and K. Pielichowski, “Phase change materials for thermal energy storage,” Progress in Materials Science, vol. 65, pp. 67-123, 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2014.03.005. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2014.03.005.

[5] A. Nandi, N. Biswas, A. Datta, N. K. Manna, D. K. Mandal and S. Biswas, “A comprehensive review on enhanced phase change materials (PCMs) for high-performance thermal energy storage: Progress, challenges, and future perspectives,” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, vol. 150, pp. 8933-8976, 2025. doi: 10.1007/s10973-025-14301-w. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-025-14301-w.

[6] K. Kant, A. Shukla and A. Sharma, “Advancement in phase change materials for thermal energy storage applications,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 172, pp. 82-92, 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2017.07.023. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.07.023.

[7] Q. Al-Yasiri and M. Szabo, “Paraffin as a phase change material to improve building performance: An overview of applications and thermal conductivity enhancement techniques,” Renewable Energy and Environmental Sustainability, vol. 6, art. 38, 2021. doi: 10.1051/rees/2021040. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1051/rees/2021040.

[8] Z. A. Qureshi, H. M. Ali and S. Khushnood, “Recent advances on thermal conductivity enhancement of phase change materials for energy storage system: A review,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 127, pp. 838-856, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.08.049. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.08.049.

[9] S. Wu, T. Yan, Z. Kuai and W. Pan, “Thermal conductivity enhancement on phase change materials for thermal energy storage: A review,” Energy Storage Materials, vol. 25, pp. 251-295, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.10.010. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.10.010.

[10] J. Woods, A. Mahvi, A. Goyal, E. Kozubal, A. Odukomaiya and R. Jackson, “Rate capability and Ragone plots for phase change thermal energy storage,” Nature Energy, vol. 6, pp. 295-302, 2021. doi: 10.1038/s41560-021-00778-w. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00778-w.

[11] A. Andreozzi, P. Asinari, A. Barletta, et al., “Heat transfer and thermal energy storage enhancement by foams and nanoparticles,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 21, art. 7421, 2023. doi: 10.3390/en16217421. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16217421.

[12] C. Y. Zhao, W. Lu and Y. Tian, “Heat transfer enhancement for thermal energy storage using metal foams embedded within phase change materials (PCMs),” Solar Energy, vol. 84, no. 8, pp. 1402-1412, 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.022. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.022.

[13] Y. Tian and C. Y. Zhao, “A numerical investigation of heat transfer in phase change materials (PCMs) embedded in porous metals,” Energy, vol. 36, no. 9, pp. 5539-5546, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2011.07.019. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.07.019.

[14] Tauseef-ur-Rehman, H. M. Ali, M. M. Janjua, U. Sajjad and W.-M. Yan, “A critical review on heat transfer augmentation of phase change materials embedded with porous materials/foams,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 135, pp. 649-673, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.02.001. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.02.001.

[15] M. A. Amidu, M. Ali, A. K. Alkaabi and Y. Addad, “A critical assessment of nanoparticles enhanced phase change materials (NePCMs) for latent heat energy storage applications,” Scientific Reports, vol. 13, art. 7829, 2023. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-34907-0. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34907-0.

[16] J. Li, S. Mo, Z. Zhou, Y. Du, L. Jia and Y. Chen, “Nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials for thermal energy storage: A critical review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 223, art. 116040, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.116040. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.116040.

[17] J. M. Mahdi and E. C. Nsofor, “Melting enhancement in triplex-tube latent heat energy storage system using nanoparticles-metal foam combination,” Applied Energy, vol. 191, pp. 22-34, 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.036. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.036.

[18] F. Hassan, A. Hussain, F. Jamil, A. Arshad and H. M. Ali, “Passive cooling analysis of an electronic chipset using nanoparticles and metal-foam composite PCM: An experimental study,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 22, art. 8746, 2022. doi: 10.3390/en15228746. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228746.

[19] A. Nassar, E. Nassar, I. Rivilla, et al., “Enhancing the thermal transfer properties of phase change material for thermal energy storage by impregnating hybrid nanoparticles within copper foams,” Results in Engineering, vol. 21, art. 101885, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.101885. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.101885.

[20] H. Senobar, M. Aramesh and B. Shabani, “Nanoparticles and metal foams for heat transfer enhancement of phase change materials: A comparative experimental study,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 32, art. 101911, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101911. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101911.

[21] A. NematpourKeshteli, M. Iasiello, G. Langella and N. Bianco, “Increasing melting and solidification performances of a phase change material-based flat plate solar collector equipped with metal foams, nanoparticles, and wavy wall-Y-shaped surface,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 291, art. 117268, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117268. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117268.

[22] B. Buonomo, A. di Pasqua, D. Ercole and O. Manca, “Numerical study of latent heat thermal energy storage enhancement by nano-PCM in aluminum foam,” Inventions, vol. 3, no. 4, art. 76, 2018. doi: 10.3390/inventions3040076. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions3040076.

[23] S. M. Hashem Zadeh, S. A. M. Mehryan, M. Ghalambaz, M. Ghodrat, J. Young and A. Chamkha, “Hybrid thermal performance enhancement of a circular latent heat storage system by utilizing partially filled copper foam and Cu/GO nano-additives,” Energy, vol. 213, art. 118761, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2020.118761. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118761.

[24] A. NematpourKeshteli, M. Iasiello, G. Langella and N. Bianco, “Using metal foam and nanoparticle additives with different fin shapes for PCM-based thermal storage in flat plate solar collectors,” Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 52, art. 102690, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.tsep.2024.102690. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2024.102690.

[25] M. H. Alturaihi and F. A. M. Abd Ali, “Transient thermal analysis of a metal foam-assisted ternary nano-enhanced phase change material cooling system for photovoltaic thermal management,” Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 183-192, 2026. doi: 10.56578/peet050207. Available online: https://doi.org/10.56578/peet050207.

[26] A. R. Abdulmunem, P. M. Samin, H. A. Rahman, H. A. Hussien and H. Ghazali, “A novel thermal regulation method for photovoltaic panels using porous metals filled with phase change material and nanoparticle additives,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 39, art. 102621, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2021.102621. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102621.

[27] J. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. 1, reprint based on the third edition of 1891. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ch. IX, pp. 435–449. doi: 10.1093/oso/9780198503736.001.0001. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198503736.001.0001.

[28] R. S. Vajjha and D. K. Das, “Experimental determination of thermal conductivity of three nanofluids and development of new correlations,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 52, no. 21-22, pp. 4675-4682, 2009. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.06.027. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.06.027.

[29] H. C. Brinkman, “The viscosity of concentrated suspensions and solutions,” Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 571, 1952. doi: 10.1063/1.1700493. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1700493.

[30] R. Elarem, T. Alqahtani, S. Mellouli, G. A. El Awadi, S. Algarni and L. Kolsi, “Experimental investigations on thermophysical properties of nano-enhanced phase change materials for thermal energy storage applications,” Alexandria Engineering Journal, vol. 61, no. 9, pp. 7037-7044, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.aej.2021.12.046. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.12.046.

[31] V. V. Calmidi and R. L. Mahajan, “The effective thermal conductivity of high porosity fibrous metal foams,” Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 121, no. 2, pp. 466-471, 1999. doi: 10.1115/1.2826001. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2826001.

[32] K. Boomsma and D. Poulikakos, “On the effective thermal conductivity of a three-dimensionally structured fluid-saturated metal foam,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 827-836, 2001. doi: 10.1016/s0017-9310(00)00123-x. See also the authors’ corrigendum, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 54, pp. 746–748, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.08.023. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0017-9310(00)00123-x.

[33] V. V. Calmidi and R. L. Mahajan, “Forced convection in high porosity metal foams,” Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 557-565, 2000. doi: 10.1115/1.1287793. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1287793.

[34] V. Joshi and M. K. Rathod, “Thermal transport augmentation in latent heat thermal energy storage system by partially filled metal foam: A novel configuration,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 22, pp. 270-282, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.02.019. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.02.019.

[35] X. Yang, J. Yu, Z. Guo, L. Jin and Y.-L. He, “Role of porous metal foam on the heat transfer enhancement for a thermal energy storage tube,” Applied Energy, vol. 239, pp. 142-156, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.075. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.075.

[36] J. Guo, Z. Liu, Z. Du, J. Yu, X. Yang and J. Yan, “Effect of fin-metal foam structure on thermal energy storage: An experimental study,” Renewable Energy, vol. 172, pp. 57-70, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.018. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.018.

[37] S. Zhang, Z. Li, Y. Yan, M. Alston and L. Tian, “Comparative study on heat transfer enhancement of metal foam and fins in a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal energy storage unit,” Energy Storage and Saving, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 487-494, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.enss.2023.03.004. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enss.2023.03.004.

[38] A. Ghahremannezhad, H. Xu, M. R. Salimpour, P. Wang and K. Vafai, “Thermal performance analysis of phase change materials (PCMs) embedded in gradient porous metal foams,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 179, art. 115731, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115731. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115731.

[39] J. M. Mahdi and E. C. Nsofor, “Multiple-segment metal foam application in the shell-and-tube PCM thermal energy storage system,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 20, pp. 529-541, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2018.09.021. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.09.021.

[40] B. Çiçek, “A numerical comparison of the thermal performances of nano-PCM heat sinks with Fe3O4, MgO, ZnO and xGNP nanoparticles: Key role of increased thermal conductivity,” Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 63, art. 103712, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.tsep.2025.103712. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2025.103712.

[41] Y. Han, Y. Yang, T. Mallick and C. Wen, “Nanoparticles to enhance melting performance of phase change materials for thermal energy storage,” Nanomaterials, vol. 12, no. 11, art. 1864, 2022. doi: 10.3390/nano12111864. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12111864.

[42] M. He, L. Yang, W. Lin, J. Chen, X. Mao and Z. Ma, “Preparation, thermal characterization and examination of phase change materials (PCMs) enhanced by carbon-based nanoparticles for solar thermal energy storage,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 25, art. 100874, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.100874. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.100874.

[43] X. Liu and Z. Rao, “Experimental study on the thermal performance of graphene and exfoliated graphite sheet for thermal energy storage phase change material,” Thermochimica Acta, vol. 647, pp. 15-21, 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.tca.2016.11.010. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2016.11.010.

[44] M. K. Pasupathi, K. Alagar, P. Michael Joseph Stalin, M. M. M. Matheswaran and G. Aritra, “Characterization of hybrid-nano/paraffin organic phase change material for thermal energy storage applications in solar thermal systems,” Energies, vol. 13, no. 19, art. 5079, 2020. doi: 10.3390/en13195079. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/en13195079.

[45] K. Hosseinzadeh, E. Montazer, M. B. Shafii and A. R. D. Ganji, “Solidification enhancement in triplex thermal energy storage system via triplets fins configuration and hybrid nanoparticles,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 34, art. 102177, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.102177. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.102177.

[46] K. Hosseinzadeh, S. Faghiri, S. Akbari, J. R. Kermani, B. Jafari and M. B. Shafii, “Effect of ternary hybrid nanoparticles (GO-MgO-TiO2) and radiative heat transfer on the solidification process of PCM inside a triplex tube with hollow fins,” International Journal of Thermofluids, vol. 20, art. 100443, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100443. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100443.

[47] S. Sami and N. Etesami, “Improving thermal characteristics and stability of phase change material containing TiO2 nanoparticles after thermal cycles for energy storage,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 124, pp. 346-352, 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.06.023. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.06.023.

[48] M. J. Allen, T. L. Bergman, A. Faghri and N. Sharifi, “Robust heat transfer enhancement during melting and solidification of a phase change material using a combined heat pipe-metal foam or foil configuration,” Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 137, no. 10, art. 102301, 2015. doi: 10.1115/1.4029970. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029970.

[49] H. Wang, F. Wang, Z. Li, Y. Tang, B. Yu and W. Yuan, “Experimental investigation on the thermal performance of a heat sink filled with porous metal fiber sintered felt/paraffin composite phase change material,” Applied Energy, vol. 176, pp. 221-232, 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.050. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.050.

[50] X. Yang, Z. Niu, J. Yu, et al., “On the performance of melting features in a thermal energy storage unit: Metal foam argumentation,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 463, art. 012115, 2020. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/463/1/012115. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/463/1/012115.

[51] Z. Wang, J. Wu, D. Lei, H. Liu, J. Li and Z. Wu, “Experimental study on latent thermal energy storage system with gradient porosity copper foam for mid-temperature solar energy application,” Applied Energy, vol. 261, art. 114472, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114472. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114472.

[52] Z. Shen, J. Hua, Y. He, F. Jiao and J. Wang, “Experimental study of melting on graded metal foam composite phase change materials under nonuniform heat flux,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 239, art. 126613, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2024.126613. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2024.126613.

[53] M. Ghalambaz, M. Aljaghtham, A. J. Chamkha, M. Fteiti and A. Abdullah, “Latent heat thermal energy storage in a shell-tube: A wavy partial layer of metal foam over tubes,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 59, art. 106493, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106493. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106493.

[54] P. Talebizadehsardari, H. I. Mohammed, J. M. Mahdi, et al., “Effect of airflow channel arrangement on the discharge of a composite metal foam-phase change material heat exchanger,” International Journal of Energy Research, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 2593-2609, 2021. doi: 10.1002/er.5949. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5949.

[55] S. Ebadi, S. H. Tasnim, A. A. Aliabadi and S. Mahmud, “An experimental investigation of the charging process of thermal energy storage system filled with PCM and metal wire mesh,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 174, art. 115266, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115266. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115266.

[56] A. R. Abdulmunem, P. M. Samin, H. A. Rahman, H. A. Hussien and I. I. Mazali, “Enhancing PV cell's electrical efficiency using phase change material with copper foam matrix and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as passive cooling method,” Renewable Energy, vol. 160, pp. 663-675, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2020.07.037. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.07.037.

[57] Z. Li, A. Shahsavar, A. A. A. A. Al-Rashed and P. Talebizadehsardari, “Effect of porous medium and nanoparticles presences in a counter-current triple-tube composite porous/nano-PCM system,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 167, art. 114777, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114777. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114777.

[58] W. Q. Li, S. J. Guo, L. Tan, L. L. Liu and W. Ao, “Heat transfer enhancement of nano-encapsulated phase change material (NEPCM) using metal foam for thermal energy storage,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 166, art. 120737, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120737. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120737.

[59] M. Al-Jethelah, S. Ebadi, K. Venkateshwar, S. H. Tasnim, S. Mahmud and A. Dutta, “Charging nanoparticle enhanced bio-based PCM in open cell metallic foams: An experimental investigation,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 148, pp. 1029-1042, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.11.121. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.11.121.

[60] F. Afsharpanah, M. Izadi, F. A. Hamedani, S. S. M. Ajarostaghi and W. Yaici, “Solidification of nano-enhanced PCM-porous composites in a cylindrical cold thermal energy storage enclosure,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, vol. 39, art. 102421, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2022.102421. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102421.

[61] J. M. Mahdi and E. C. Nsofor, “Solidification enhancement in a triplex-tube latent heat energy storage system using nanoparticles-metal foam combination,” Energy, vol. 126, pp. 501-512, 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.03.060. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.03.060.

[62] M. Ghalambaz, S. A. M. Mehryan, K. A. Ayoubloo, et al., “Thermal energy storage and heat transfer of nano-enhanced phase change material (NePCM) in a shell and tube thermal energy storage (TES) unit with a partial layer of eccentric copper foam,” Molecules, vol. 26, no. 5, art. 1491, 2021. doi: 10.3390/molecules26051491. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051491.

[63] X. Xiao, H. Jia, D. Wen and X. Zhao, “Thermal performance analysis of a solar energy storage unit encapsulated with HITEC salt/copper foam/nanoparticles composite,” Energy, vol. 192, art. 116593, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.116593. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116593.

[64] X. Xiao, H. Jia, S. Pervaiz and D. Wen, “Molten salt/metal foam/graphene nanoparticle phase change composites for thermal energy storage,” ACS Applied Nano Materials, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 5240-5251, 2020. doi: 10.1021/acsanm.0c00648. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c00648.

[65] S. Zhang, Y. Yao, Y. Jin, Z. Shang and Y. Yan, “Heat transfer characteristics of ceramic foam/molten salt composite phase change material (CPCM) for medium-temperature thermal energy storage,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 196, art. 123262, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.123262. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.123262.

[66] B. Buonomo, D. Ercole, O. Manca and S. Nardini, “Numerical analysis on a latent thermal energy storage system with phase change materials and aluminum foam,” Heat Transfer Engineering, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 1075-1084, 2020. doi: 10.1080/01457632.2019.1600875. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01457632.2019.1600875.

[67] S.-B. Chen, S. Saleem, M. N. Alghamdi, et al., “Combined effect of using porous media and nano-particle on melting performance of PCM filled enclosure with triangular double fins,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, vol. 25, art. 100939, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2021.100939. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.100939.

[68] M. A. Essa, M. Talaat, A. Amer and M. A. Farahat, “Enhancing the photovoltaic system efficiency using porous metallic media integrated with phase change material,” Energy, vol. 225, art. 120299, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2021.120299. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120299.

[69] M. Mehrabi-Kermani, E. Houshfar and M. Ashjaee, “A novel hybrid thermal management for Li-ion batteries using phase change materials embedded in copper foams combined with forced-air convection,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences, vol. 141, pp. 47-61, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2019.03.026. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2019.03.026.

[70] M. A. Hayat, H. M. Ali, M. M. Janjua, W. Pao, C. Li and M. Alizadeh, “Phase change material/heat pipe and copper foam-based heat sinks for thermal management of electronic systems,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 32, art. 101971, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101971. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101971.

[71] S. Sowdagar Mohammed, S. K. Gugulothu, R. Muthyala, P. Barmavatu and S. Gunduboina, “Next-generation fin-integrated nano-enhanced phase change material solutions with porous copper foam for advanced thermal management of high-C-rate Li-ion batteries,” Energy Technology, vol. 13, no. 11, art. 2402222, 2025. doi: 10.1002/ente.202402222. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202402222.

[72] S. Lee and H. Lee, “Thermal performance of PCM heat sink with fins, metal foams, and nanoparticles under extreme thermal conditions,” in 2025 ASHRAE Winter Conference, paper OR-25-C007, 2025. doi: 10.63044/w25lee7. Available online: https://doi.org/10.63044/w25lee7.

[73] M. Sheikholeslami and S. M. Mousavi, “Numerical analysis of an evacuated tube thermosyphon solar collector with hybrid nanoparticle-enhanced PCM storage and porous metal foam for improved thermal performance,” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 29, art. 101459, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101459. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101459.

[74] R. Rabani, J. Ghavanini and S. Shoroei, “Metal foams, nanofluids, and phase change material for enhanced heat transfer and thermal energy storage: A multiscale review,” Sustainable Energy and Artificial Intelligence, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 89-106, 2026. doi: 10.66224/seai.2601-1038. Available online: https://doi.org/10.66224/seai.2601-1038.

[75] V. R. Voller and C. Prakash, “A fixed grid numerical modelling methodology for convection-diffusion mushy region phase-change problems,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 1709-1719, 1987. doi: 10.1016/0017-9310(87)90317-6. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(87)90317-6.

[76] S. W. Churchill and H. H. S. Chu, “Correlating equations for laminar and turbulent free convection from a horizontal cylinder,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 1049-1053, 1975. doi: 10.1016/0017-9310(75)90222-7. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(75)90222-7.

[77] S. J. Kline and F. A. McClintock, “Describing uncertainties in single-sample experiments,” Mechanical Engineering, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 3-8, 1953.

[78] R. J. Moffat, “Describing the uncertainties in experimental results,” Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17, 1988. doi: 10.1016/0894-1777(88)90043-X. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0894-1777(88)90043-X.